.......李先念是在中共幕後的幾位元老之一,他們雖然名義上退休了,但對國家持有最終控制權。他的逝世預計會對國內仍健在的保守派是一個打擊。後者與那些想施行更快經濟改革的領導人正進行着一場權力鬥爭。
雖然在人生中的最後幾年幾乎沒在公開場合出現過,但他一直是高層領導人鄧小平在所有關鍵決定上的參謀之一。在他所住的位於共產黨總部中南海西南角一條小路上的四合院裡,李先念在意識形態的正統觀念上持續施加壓力,始終執着於計劃經濟。
機敏的政治家
李先念擔任中共中央委員會委員近半個世紀,展現出非同尋常的生存能力,成功躲過了多次讓其同僚的仕途倒退或終止的政治清洗運動。他的仕途與鄧小平的交織在一起,有時合作,有時對抗。
1989年春天的天安門民主運動期間,李先念對鄧小平的武力鎮壓給予了強有力的支持。70年代中期,李先念曾與鄧小平一起試圖恢復遭文化大革命破壞的國民經濟。據說他也參與了讓1976年被打倒的鄧小平復出的努力。
在另外一些時候,李先念卻似乎沒那麼政治敏銳。當鄧小平在1976年下台的時候,李先念曾抓住時機,號召中國人民要「深入揭批鄧小平」。
但到了80年代,在李先念幫助鄧小平恢復工作不久以後,他越來越成為鄧的對手。他不信任鄧小平想引入的多種資本主義式的改革,對其指定的政治接班人也保持警惕。這兩位接班人就是胡耀邦和趙紫陽,他們分別於1987年和1989年失勢下台,李先念在其中都發揮了作用。
忙到生命終止
即使是在生命的最後時光,據說李先念還寫了一封信,敦促領導層繼續防範來自西方的影響。
李先念1909年6月23日出生在湖北省紅安縣的一個貧困家庭。他似乎沒有受過正式教育。木匠出身的他在服務於蔣介石的國民黨軍隊一年後,於1927年加入了共產黨。
他優秀的談判技巧幫他在共產黨內部層層晉陞,1935年加入毛澤東的長征後,作為一名軍隊的指揮,他身上那種在農村形成的吃苦耐勞的能力,也發揮了重要作用。長征是共產黨軍隊從中國東部受到威脅的根據地,突圍到中北部建立新總部的宏大征程。
1939年,他率領游擊隊在湖北抗擊日軍;到了1941年時,手下有6萬人聽其調遣。
自學成為經濟學家
李先念於1945年被選入中國共產黨中央委員會,直到1987年退休才卸任。在抗日戰爭勝利後,李先念率領他的部隊與蔣介石的國民黨軍隊作戰,直到對方於1949年逃出大陸。同年,新的共產主義國家成立,李先念任湖北省政府主席。
可能是在1952年被任命為工業城市武漢的市長之後,李先念開始自學如何管理經濟。兩年後,他成為國務院副總理,並於1956年進入中央政治局,直至1987年。
在1957年,李先念被任命為財政部長。1958年,毛澤東發起追趕西方的「大躍進」,運動失敗後,李先念與鄧小平等人一起着手修復該運動對國家經濟的破壞。
他很快參與到管理經濟的方方面面中,從農業到貿易到經濟計劃。在50年代的一段時間,他曾被分配了兩名蘇聯顧問;他後來說,他和那兩人天天爭吵。那段經歷使他對蘇聯產生了懷疑。但他也討厭美國在台灣問題上支持國民黨。
「你們這些年輕人⋯⋯」
1983年,李先念當選國家主席,這基本上是一個沒有實權的職位,他能得到這個位置,部分是因為他對鄧小平的支持。在1985年去美國進行正式訪問之前,他與記者聊到了他的背痛和其他毛病。
他說:「我年紀大了,你們這些年輕人不懂我們老年人。」
李先念於1988年上半年卸任國家主席,同時獲得一個更加儀式性的新職務:中國人民政治協商會議全國委員會主席。
他身後留下了妻子林佳楣,三個女兒和一個兒子。
*****
In conversation: Joanne Freeman on Alexander Hamilton the man and 'Hamilton' the musical
Sitting in the audience of the critically acclaimed Broadway play “Hamilton,” Yale historian Joanne Freeman was impressed by the ways that its creator, Lin-Manuel Miranda, melded hip-hop music with early American history. Freeman realized she was watching “revolutionary theater.”
Then she heard “10 Duel Commandments,” a song about the rules of dueling, and her “jaw hit the floor,” she says. In the lyrics to the song, Freeman recognized words in a document that she had uncovered decades before at the bottom of a box at the New-York Historical Society, and had discussed in a chapter of her book, “Affairs of Honor: National Politics in the New Republic.”
It was a “surreal” moment for the scholar, who has been studying Alexander Hamilton for decades.
During a recent conversation with YaleNews, Freeman spoke about the role that Alexander Hamilton has played in her life, how she hopes that interest in the play inspires future generations of students to study early America, and why the legendary founder has continued to pique her interest for almost 40 years.
What follows is an edited version of that conversation.
What led you to start researching Hamilton?
It was around the time of the bicentennial. I was 14 years old and I started reading biographies of founders. When I came across a biography of Alexander Hamilton, I didn’t like it. I didn’t believe it. So I went back to the library, asked what the author of the book had read, and the librarian sent me off to read Hamilton’s papers. They fascinated me--because they were the "real history" of Hamilton, not an interpretation. From that time on, I have never stopped reading Hamilton’s papers. And that research led me to want to learn about other topics, like the period's politics and dueling. Basically, Hamilton drew me into my career as a historian. One strange coincidence: I have worked with the National Park Service over the years and oddly enough, Hamilton's house in Harlem became a national memorial on the day I was born: April 27, 1962. A few years back, the Hamilton Grange National Memorial and I turned 50 years old together, and I celebrated my birthday in Hamilton’s home.
With all of the hype surrounding the play, this is such a surreal time for me. The incredible fact is that for the past 40 years I have been studying Hamilton, writing about him, and lecturing all over the country about him, but very few people knew who he was. And now, this play has brought his history into the limelight. I mean, there are Hamilton socks!
What was your initial reaction to the play?
My initial thought was that the play is entertaining and contains quite a bit of history. There is a Cabinet meeting rap battle in the play; Washington’s Farewell Address is sung in the play. I saw the play with a friend who is a historian and our jaws were on the floor. And in its form and style, the play is so different. It's clearly revolutionary theater. Then I heard the song titled “10 Duel Commandments.” As it went on, I heard words from a document that I had discovered at the New-York Historical Society in the bottom of a box, and I realized the song was based on that document — and more broadly, on the chapter of my book about the Burr-Hamilton duel. I loved that I had something to do with the play!
The document was a set of notes from the trial of Aaron Burr's second in the duel, William Van Ness, who took notes on what testifying witnesses were saying. Amazingly, I had discovered new eyewitness accounts of the Burr-Hamilton duel. And its details were fascinating. The two boatmen who rowed Hamilton and Burr to the location of the duel, and the doctor who was present, all testified that they had stood with their backs to the dueling ground, so during the trial, when asked what they had seen, they could honestly say that they heard gunshots but saw no duel. The document reveals lots of customs of this sort — customs that gave people taking part in a duel a kind of deniability. You can see this play out in the courtroom. It was mind-blowing to hear these details in a song.
How accurate is the Broadway play’s depiction of Alexander Hamilton?
It's almost comical: now that everyone is excited about Hamilton, it is not the real Hamilton that they're excited about. I can detail a lot of things that are not discussed or included in the play, or that are outright wrong with it, but it is important to remember that this is a hip-hop musical. The play captures aspects of Hamilton’s personality, but ultimately it is a play about one person’s rise and fall. I would not want my students to think it's an authentic version of history. But my students — who are very excited about the play — are more sophisticated than that. They come to class and ask, ‘what really happened?’ This play has become a teaching avenue, a door opener. So, if there are more students in my history classes because of it, then that's a bonus. And if the play gets kids thinking that early American history is interesting and relevant to the present day, and moves them to study it, then that's great too.
Why did you remain interested in Alexander Hamilton for so many years?
I've stayed interested in Hamilton not because he was a standard-issue hero, but because of his complications; he was self-destructive, had a highly problematic personality, and was often extreme in his politics. I don’t like hero history. It does the study of history a disservice on a thousand different levels. It's far more interesting to study complicated people and the history they helped to shape.
~~~~~
維基百科,自由的百科全書
English
English
亞歷山大漢密爾頓
| |
第1任美國財政部長
| |
---|---|
任期 1789年9月11日-1795年1月31日 | |
總統 | 喬治·華盛頓 |
前任 | 新職位 |
繼任 | 小奧利弗·沃爾科特 |
任期 1799年12月14日-1800年6月15日 | |
總統 | 約翰·亞當斯 |
前任 | 喬治·華盛頓 |
繼任 | 詹姆斯威金斯 |
任期 1788年11月3日-1789年3月2日 | |
前任 | 艾格伯特·班森 |
繼任 | 職位被廢除 |
任期 1782年11月3日-1783年6月21日 | |
前任 | 新職位 |
繼任 | 職位被廢除 |
個人資料
| |
出生 | 1757年1月11日 英屬西印度群島尼維斯查爾斯頓 |
逝世 | 1804年7月12日(47歲) 美國紐約市 |
政黨 | 聯邦黨 |
配偶 | 伊莉莎白·斯凱勒·漢密爾頓 |
子女 | 菲利普 安吉里卡 亞歷山大 詹姆斯亞歷山大 約翰丘奇漢密爾頓 威廉史蒂夫漢密爾頓 |
母校 | 哥倫比亞大學 |
宗教信仰 | 長老會, 美國聖公會 |
簽名 | |
軍事背景
| |
效忠 | 紐約州 (1775–1777) 美國 (1777–1800) |
服役 | 紐約炮兵部隊 大陸軍 美國 |
服役時間 | 1775–1776 美國民兵 1776–1781 1798–1800 |
軍階 | 美軍少將 美國軍隊總指揮 |
參戰 | 美國獨立戰爭 *哈林高地戰役 *白原戰役 *特倫頓戰役 *普林斯頓戰役 *布蘭迪萬河戰役 *日耳曼敦戰役 *蒙茅思戰役 *約克鎮圍城戰役 美法短暫衝突 |
亞歷山大·漢密爾頓(英語:Alexander Hamilton,1755年或1757年1月11日-1804年7月12日),美國軍人及開國元勳,經濟學家,政治哲學家,美國憲法起草人之一與第一任美國財政部長。
生平[編輯]
漢密爾頓是喬治·華盛頓政府統治時期的經濟政策的主要構思者,其中重要的有:重建國家信用的計劃、建立國家銀行、建立關稅系統、與英國建立友好貿易關係。因為他的觀點有大批支持者,所以他於1791年創立了聯邦黨,並成為該黨的領袖,與由湯瑪斯·傑佛遜、詹姆斯·麥迪遜主張維護州權、領導的民主共和黨對抗,成為美國兩黨制初型。
漢密爾頓曾參與美國獨立戰爭。在開戰時,他組織了一個炮兵團,並被選為團長。後來,他成為了總司令喬治·華盛頓的侍從武官,深得信賴[1]。在1794年,他起兵鎮壓反抗重稅的西部農民牽起的威士忌暴動。1798年,漢密爾頓在XYZ事件後動員軍隊,對抗法國,並被任命為一支新軍的指揮官[2]。美法短暫衝突雖然在海上進行得十分激烈,卻從未正式宣戰。最後,總統約翰·亞當斯尋得了避免戰爭的外交解決方案。
漢密爾頓自幼生長在西印度群島,受當地人民捐款,到北美深造,入讀英皇書院(現哥倫比亞大學)。在美國獨立戰爭後,漢密爾頓被選為大陸會議紐約州代表。他辭去職務,投身法律界並創辦了紐約銀行。他不滿意美國第一部憲法邦聯條例。在紐約州議會任議員間,漢密爾頓被派往安納波利斯會議作為代表,修訂憲法,但會議最終決定以新憲法代替舊憲法。在起草新憲法的制憲會議中,他是紐約州代表之一,也是唯一一個簽署的紐約州代表。為推動新憲法通過,漢密爾頓寫了一系列解釋憲法的文章(即後人所稱的聯邦黨人文集),直到今日仍然是憲法解釋的重要來源[3]。喬治·華盛頓任命他為財政部長[4]。
漢密爾頓推崇英國政制,但亦是一個民族主義者,強調要建立一個強力的聯邦政府,並成功說服他人,憲法的「默示權力」(Implied powers)賦予了政府發行國債、承擔國家債務與創立美國政府所有的銀行的權力。以此為據,他開徵入口關稅,後來更開徵備受爭議的威士忌消費稅。
在他與瑪麗·雷諾的婚外情曝光後,在1795年,他辭去財政部長一職,在紐約重操舊業。然而作為聯邦黨領袖他仍然參與政治事務,並在亞當斯內閣中有巨大影響力。他與亞當斯政見不合,使得後者在1800年美國總統選舉中落敗。當副總統湯瑪斯·傑佛遜與阿龍·伯爾角逐總統時,他因為私人恩怨幫助傑佛遜擊敗伯爾,使得傑佛遜當選總統,伯爾當選副總統。在他與亞當斯決裂後,他在黨內只有幾個支持者。
決鬥身亡[編輯]
The Many Faces of Alexander Hamilton
After digging deep into their storage rooms, four institutions are showing off what they’ve got related to the country’s new favorite founder — just in time for the Fourth of July weekend.
閻紀宇
美國財政部原本計劃將10美元紙鈔上的首任財政部長漢密爾頓(Alexander Hamilton)換成女性人物,但卻激起強烈反對聲浪,不得不取消計劃,轉而對20美元紙鈔進行改版。才氣縱橫卻因決鬥英年早逝的漢密爾頓(1757─1804),近年拜百老匯(Broadway)舞台劇《漢密爾頓》(Hamilton)叫好叫座之賜,再度成為美國社會話題人物。
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