A geodesic dome is a hemispherical thin-shell structure (lattice-shell) based on a geodesic polyhedron. The rigid triangular elements of the dome distribute stress throughout the structure, making geodesic domes able to withstand very heavy loads for their size.
History
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The first geodesic dome was designed after World War I by Walther Bauersfeld,[1] chief engineer of Carl Zeiss Jena, an optical company, for a planetarium to house his planetarium projector. An initial, small dome was patented and constructed by the firm of Dykerhoff and Wydmann on the roof of the Carl Zeiss Werke in Jena, Germany. A larger dome, called "The Wonder of Jena", opened to the public in July 1926.[2]
Twenty years later, Buckminster Fuller coined the term "geodesic" from field experiments with artist Kenneth Snelson at Black Mountain College in 1948 and 1949. Although Fuller was not the original inventor, he is credited with the U.S. popularization of the idea for which he received U.S. patent 2682235A on 29 June 1954.[3] The oldest surviving dome built by Fuller himself is located in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, and was built by students under his tutelage over three weeks in 1953.[4]
The geodesic dome appealed to Fuller because it was extremely strong for its weight, its "omnitriangulated" surface provided an inherently stable structure, and because a sphere encloses the greatest volume for the least surface area.
The dome was successfully adopted for specialized uses, such as the 21 Distant Early Warning Line domes built in Canada in 1956,[5] the 1958 Union Tank Car Company dome near Baton Rouge, Louisiana, designed by Thomas C. Howard of Synergetics, Inc. and specialty buildings such as the Kaiser Aluminum domes (constructed in numerous locations across the US, e.g., Virginia Beach, Virginia), auditoriums, weather observatories, and storage facilities. The dome was soon breaking records for covered surface, enclosed volume, and construction speed.
Beginning in 1954, the U.S. Marines experimented with helicopter-deliverable geodesic domes. A 30-foot wood and plastic geodesic dome was lifted and carried by helicopter at 50 knots without damage, leading to the manufacture of a standard magnesium dome by Magnesium Products of Milwaukee. Tests included assembly practices in which previously untrained Marines were able to assemble a 30-foot magnesium dome in 135 minutes, helicopter lifts off aircraft carriers, and a durability test in which an anchored dome successfully withstood without damage, a day-long 120 mph (190 km/h) propeller blast from the twin 3,000 horsepower engines of an anchored airplane.[6]
The 1958 Gold Dome in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, utilized Fuller's design for use as a bank building. Another early example was the Stepan Center at the University of Notre Dame, built in 1962.[7]
The dome was introduced to a wider audience as a pavilion for the 1964 New York World's Fair designed by Thomas C. Howard of Synergetics, Inc. This dome is now used as an aviary by the Queens Zoo in Flushing Meadows Corona Park.[8]
Another dome is from Expo 67 at the Montreal World's Fair, where it was part of the American Pavilion. The structure's covering later burned, but the structure itself still stands and, under the name Biosphère, currently houses an interpretive museum about the Saint Lawrence River.
In the 1970s, Zomeworks licensed plans for structures based on other geometric solids, such as the Johnson solids, Archimedean solids, and Catalan solids.[9] These structures may have some faces that are not triangular, being squares or other polygons.
In 1975, a dome was constructed at the South Pole, where its resistance to snow and wind loads was important.
On October 1, 1982, one of the most famous geodesic domes, Spaceship Earth at Epcot in Walt Disney World Resort in Bay Lake, Florida, just outside of Orlando opened. The building and the ride inside of it are named with one of Buckminster Fuller's famous terms, Spaceship Earth, a world view expressing concern over the use of limited resources available on Earth and encouraging everyone on it to act as a harmonious crew working toward the greater good. The building is Epcot's icon, representing the entire park.
For the 1986 World's Fair (Expo 86), held in Vancouver, a Buckminster Fuller-inspired Geodesic dome was designed by the Expo's chief architect Bruno Freschi to serve as the fair's Expo Centre. Construction began in 1984 and was completed by early 1985. The dome and the building now serve as an Arts, Science and Technology center, and has been named Science World.[10]
In 2000, the world's first fully sustainable geodesic dome hotel, EcoCamp Patagonia, was built at Kawésqar National Park in Chilean Patagonia,[11] opening the following year in 2001. The hotel's dome design is key to resisting the region's strong winds and is based on the dwellings of the indigenous Kaweskar people. Geodomes are also becoming popular as a glamping (glamorous camping) unit.
Methods of construction
Did you know that planes don't fly in a straight line?
The shortest distance between two points is always a straight line, but only in Euclidean geometry.
What is this? It's a geometry that is usually taught in school, where figures are two-dimensional and presented on a flat surface like a sheet of paper.
In real life, on the surface of the Earth, the shortest distance traveled is a curve called a geodesic.
That's because (unfortunately for flat-earthers) our planet is not flat!
On the map, the cities of New York and Moscow were used as references.
Rhyton in the shape of an ibex
野山羊（複數：ibex、ibexes 或 ibices）是幾種野山羊（卡普拉屬）中的一種，其特徵是雄性的大角向後彎曲，角在前面呈橫向脊狀。野山羊分佈於歐亞大陸、北非和東非。
分類學
[編輯]ibex這個名字來自拉丁語，借用自伊比利亞語或阿基塔尼亞語，類似於古西班牙語bezerro，“公牛”，現代西班牙語becerro，“一歲鴿”。雄性野山羊的身高為 70 至 110 公分（27-43 英吋），體重為 90 至 120 公斤（200-270 磅），壽命可達 20 年。在野外發現的三種密切相關的山羊品種通常不被稱為野山羊：捻角山羊、西部山羊和東部山羊。
雄性野山羊被稱為“雄鹿”，雌性被稱為“母鹿”，幼年的野山羊被稱為“孩子”。[ 1 ]野山羊通常比母鹿更大、更重。兩性之間最明顯的差異是雄鹿角的尺寸較大。母鹿長有一對較小、較薄的角，它們的角比雄鹿的角發育得慢得多。野山羊的角在出生時就出現，並在其餘生中不斷生長。
已知的野山羊
[編輯]被稱為 ibex 的野山羊有 ：
- 亞洲野山羊也稱為西伯利亞野山羊（Capra sibirica ），是一種生活在中亞沙漠和喜馬拉雅山西北部長山地系統的野山羊。肩高80-100厘米，平均體重60公斤。成年雄性有長而尖的鬍鬚和彎刀形的角，額頭上有突出的脊。皮毛呈深棕色，下身呈灰色，背部有一條從頸部延伸到尾巴的條紋。成年雄性的背上也有灰色的鞍狀斑塊。該物種表現出性別二態性，因為雌性體型較小，有小而直的角，角在基部分離得很遠。亞洲羱羊廣泛分佈於從阿富汗興都庫什山脈到蒙古薩彥嶺的地區。這些動物最常出現在海拔 3000 至 5300 公尺的海拔範圍內，但也已知出現在阿爾泰山脈低至 1000 公尺的地區。它們偏好崎嶇的地形作為反掠食者的策略。[ 2 ]
- 高山野山羊（Capra ibex）發現於歐洲 阿爾卑斯山。高山羱羊分佈於法國、保加利亞、奧地利、瑞士、義大利、德國和斯洛維尼亞，並已引進美國、加拿大和阿根廷的牧場。
- 伊比利亞野山羊（Caprapyrenaica）以前稱為西班牙野山羊，僅限於伊比利亞半島、西班牙、葡萄牙和法國比利牛斯山脈的山區飛地，[ 3 ]但過去也曾出現在法國南部。這裡生活著大約 50,000 隻伊比利亞野山羊。兩個亞種已經滅絕。其中之一是比利牛斯野山羊，於 2003 年被克隆，但克隆出來的個體很快就死亡了。[ 4 ]
- 努比亞羱羊（Capra nubiana ）棲息在中東的沙漠地區以及蘇丹和埃及的伊特拜地區。它們是最小的野山羊物種，適應乾旱環境，呈棕褐色，下腹部和臀部白色，腿黑色，尾巴黑色。該物種屬於易危物種，野外數量少於 4,500 隻。大部分地區的人口正在減少。[ 5 ]
- 瓦利亞或埃塞俄比亞羱羊（Capra walie ）發現於埃塞俄比亞高地的塞米恩山脈，最近它已從極度瀕危升級為瀕危。它有時被認為是高山野山羊的亞種。野山羊也是阿克蘇姆帝國的國徽。
- 野山羊（Capra aegagrus ），又稱西亞羱羊，分佈於土耳其和西至高加索地區，東至土庫曼斯坦、阿富汗和巴基斯坦，是家山羊的祖先。
歷史
[編輯]考古記錄中廣泛存在野山羊的證據，特別是在近東和地中海地區。野山羊圖案在圓筒印章和陶器（彩繪和浮雕）上非常常見。例如，在克諾索斯的米諾斯克里特 島的發掘中就發現了大約 100 年前的標本。 西元前 1800 年，包括一幅圓筒印章，描繪了一隻野山羊保護自己免受獵犬攻擊的情景。[ 6 ]在位於現今希臘聖托里尼島的阿克羅蒂裡考古遺址[ 7 ]發現了類似時代的黃金珠寶野山羊圖像。
在現今阿富汗的Aq Kupruk考古遺址發現了鐵器時代的 卡普拉野山羊標本，說明了這些早期民族對野山羊的馴化或狩獵。[需要澄清]然而，北山羊的考古記錄很難與家山羊的考古記錄分開。[ 8 ]
透過對奧茨 (Ötzi)胃內容物的 DNA 分析，發現 了馴化或狩獵野山羊的早期證據。的 天然木乃伊，他生活在公元前3400 年至3100 年之間。根據 DNA 重建，該男子的倒數第二餐含有野山羊。[ 9 ]有個神話說野山羊曾經有翅膀，它們過去常常飛回來，到那時它們的翅膀消失了，它們開始爬山。[需要引用]
在也門，野山羊長期以來一直是國家認同的象徵，代表了也門人民的許多正面特質。由於狩獵，這種動物（主要是努比亞野山羊）的數量自 20 世紀末以來顯著下降。 2022 年，活動人士和知識分子敦促宣布每年 1 月 22 日為國家野山羊日，並呼籲加強對這種動物的保護。[ 10 ] [ 11 ]
更多資訊：努比亞羱羊§文化意義與人類剝削
拯救滅絕
[編輯]15 世紀火器普及後，分佈在歐洲許多山區的野山羊數量大量減少，因為它們很容易成為獵人的目標。野山羊經常被獵殺以獲取其肉，而其他身體部位則用於藥用。野山羊角作為治療陽痿的藥物而受到高度追捧，而它的血液則被用來治療腎結石。[需要引用]
如果不是薩伏依公爵的先見之明，對野山羊的無情捕獵可能會導致其滅絕。薩伏依公爵兼撒丁島國王查爾斯-菲利克斯在受到關於野山羊瀕危狀態的報告的說服後，禁止在他的大天堂莊園內獵殺野山羊。該禁令於 1821 年 9 月 12 日實施，並很快擴展到王國其他地區。 1856 年，維克多·伊曼紐爾二世 (Victor Emmanuel II)繼查理·菲利克斯 (Charles-Felix) 成為國王後，將大天堂 (Gran Paradiso)作為受保護的狩獵莊園，並指定獵場看守人在該地區巡邏。[ 12 ]
An ibex (pl.: ibex, ibexes or ibices) is any of several species of wild goat (genus Capra), distinguished by the male's large recurved horns, which are transversely ridged in front. Ibex are found in Eurasia, North Africa and East Africa.
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